Thursday, October 31, 2019
Compare the parliamentary and presidential forms of government. What Essay
Compare the parliamentary and presidential forms of government. What are the strengths and weakness of each - Essay Example The Prime Minister (who is the chief executive) may be elected to the legislature in the same way that all other members are elected" (Governing Systems and Executive-Legislative Relations n.d.). Power in Parliamentary systems is concentrated in the Parliamentary leaders. It follows that pressure groups, to promote their interests, must influence the leaders, and this they can do effectively only by putting pressure on them directly or by acting through agencies that can, above all the parties and civil servants. Parliament, of course, also has some influence with its leaders, hence it is not entirely useless for British pressure groups to try to influence Prime Ministers (Mettenhiem 27). But compared to the pressures exerted through parties and civil servants their parliamentary activities are secondary. For instance, the need to focus pressure on the bureaucrats is reinforced by the activities of British government. First, the vast scope and technical character of decision-making r equired by welfare-state policies has led to the devolution of more and more decision-making authority to the bureaucracy, so that there is in Britain a vast amount of executive legislation (Ben-Zion Kaminsky 221). Equally important, the decision-making powers delegated to the Departments are likely to be of special concern to interest groups (Lijphart 129). General policy, of course, is still predominantly made by the Government, but technical details, especially the sort needing fairly frequent revisions (e.g., how much money is to be paid to doctors; what prices to guarantee to the farmers; on what basis to grant or withhold licenses to build, import, issue securities or acquire raw materials), are taken care of by the Departments, and such details are likely to be of as great concern to interest groups as policy in its broad sense (Mettenhiem 29). In contrast to Parliamentary systems, where the P.M is a party leader, the President is chosen by a separate election. "The President then appoints his or her cabinet of ministers (or "secretaries" in US parlance). Ministers/Secretaries usually are not simultaneously members of the legislature, although their appointment may require the advice and consent of the legislative branch" (Governing Systems and Executive-Legislative Relations n.d.). In this view, the constitutional separation of the executive and the legislature is the main culprit in the now excessive fractionizing of governmental power. Following Lijphart (1992): "the notion of the supremacy of parliament as a whole over its parts is a distinctive characteristic of parliamentary systems" (37). The main differences between the Parliamentary and Presidential forms of government are found in separation of power (Lijphart 16). In general, the Presidential form stipulates separation of power between different branches while the Parliamentary form means a fusion of power. In both forms, corporatism is characterized by high concentrations of government power as well as private power (Ben-Zion Kaminsky 221). Pluralism, on the other hand, is based on low concentrations of government and private power. A state-directed system is characterized by high concentration of government power, and low concentration of private power. And, finally, high concentratio
Monday, October 28, 2019
The Psychology Of Writing Essay Example for Free
The Psychology Of Writing Essay In September 2004, I embarked upon a career opportunity that – I believed – was beyond my reach and capabilities. It was for the well-being of my family that I accepted the challenge. Almost immediately after starting the work, I was assigned a task that I truly believed I would fail at: it was the task of completing a technical solution that outlined the design installations of one of the countrys most secure facilities. I was required to not only learn the technical specifications of hundreds of communication devices, but also to describe that function in a manner in which any person from off the street, with or without a technical background, could pick up the Standard Operating Procedures (SOP) and completely maneuver the Network Operation Center (NOC), even though I myself had come from an Information Technology (IT) background.            A lot of my knowledge was gained through careful observation, question asking, and note taking. I worried each and every day about the consequences which would arise if I were unable to deliver. As one may assume, numerous meetings were conducted by the customers, expressing precisely the type of systems necessary to provide them with advanced applications and maximum flexibility for the capabilities of integration of tomorrows technologies. I learned a lot just by listening and recording staff meetings which were unclassified, so that I could take what I had learned and research the type of equipment needed to meet the customers requirements. I would then ask questions of more skilled individuals. For instance, â€Å"How would you do this?†. Or, â€Å"How would you do that?† I also asked many a â€Å"Why?† Since I was, in reality, lacking the proper academic background to execute these tasks, I used what I was good at: research and problem-solving. I began to put my facts down on paper, utilizing the manufacturers technical notes, the data received by more skilled persons, and information I had found using a tool that every household now uses, Google, to derive a Technical Solution and Installation Plan that received much praise and even a promotion!            I apologize if this sounds like a happy ending story, because its not. The research, and rewrite upon rewrite, and multiple revisions of even these Looking back, I wonder if the methods I employed would have been different if I had completed my education. But in the modern world in which we live, technology had given modern man many methods by which to learn and perform tasks once thought to be completely unavailable to people like myself.            I remember the day I first arrived in Colorado Springs. I only had a short visit scheduled, so I had to make the most of the trip. My flight landed just before midday on a Friday. I believe it was August, as the weather was pleasantly cool and sunny. Because I was sat in a window seat, I was able to get a good look at the city upon approach. From above the city, still in the air, what you first notice is what I like to refer to as â€Å"cookie cutter communities†. The scenery of the different neighborhoods looks as though God Himself once pressed a cookie cutter into the ground.  Due to the altitude of â€Å"The Springs†, as the locals call it, the air-craft inadvertently provided a touristic view of the city. One could not miss the world-famous Pikes Peak. If you recall your American Folk Song, â€Å"America†, then you know â€Å"Purple Mountains Majesty†. Well, Pikes Peak is what the song is all about, and I must admit that it is breathtakingly topped with snow-crested peaks even in July! As the plane continued its descent, â€Å"The Garden of the Gods†came into view, the large rocks seeming like giant clay boulders somehow naturally arranged in balance – as if by God.            Colorado Springs is not very large. The main road, IH-25 (or, as the locals call it, the â€Å"I†) is the only way in and out when traveling by car, and during the wetter months I have seen it closed from Trinidad (70 miles to the south) to Denver (70 miles to the north). The area is more for outdoorsy people, who enjoy skiing, fishing, hunting, and the same such. However, if your interest is in military history, you wont be let down. The Springs is home to three military bases, as well as the Air Force Academy, and also â€Å"NORAD†. Most people who are new to the area, or just visiting, find it much more rewarding simply driving to see it.  For instance, taking the â€Å"I†to 24W up into the mountains, you climb up to Manitou, a Norman Rockwell-type of picturesque town nestled into the scenery. This is one of my favorite places to go. Its old-time square consists of brick- and wood-fronted shops which melt into the scene like a painting. As you continue to travel west on 24, Pikes Peak Highway is just a few minutes ahead. Believe it or not, Santa is said to have a summer home here. To promote good behavior, parents are often heard exclaiming, â€Å"Santa can see you†!            At the beginning of my career, I decided that I wanted to do things that were not so common. The ambition to undertake such a mission was driven by the attitude that there is nothing like changing the world. To lay the foundation, I entered the military and successfully completed boot camp. Thereafter, I was sent to Ft. Benning, Georgia to begin â€Å"Jump School†. This is where you are sent to learn to become a paratrooper, the first step to sky-diving or, as it is otherwise referred to in the Military, â€Å"High Altitude Low-Out HALO†. The regimented course is approximately four weeks and consists of enduring hours of physical training, ground tower, and jump weeks. The curriculum involves various tasks which teach you the correct way to land, how to maneuver the chute while airborne, and much more. Each recruit is required to complete five jumps before he or she graduates and is allowed to pin on their jump wings. This event in particular was one of the key steps that propelled my career, as it in turn took me to Israel – one of my favorite places in the world.            Israel appeared like Mohammed in the desert. Herzliya, located on the central coastal strip, is a breath-taking city on the Mediterranean Sea. It does not take too long after arrival to begin to understand the way of life there – cameras are mounted everywhere, police presence is widespread, there are heavily-armed IDF forces on each and every corner, and Apache patrols go along the coastline every 15 minutes. However, taken through the eyes of the locals, the city is alive with the old and new worlds living in harmony. During my time there, I was able to visit Tel Aviv, Eilat, and Jerusalem.            Most alluring was the beauty of being surrounded by water. This permitted me to do a good amount of scuba-diving and fishing. Although Im no expert, the waters of the Middle East are by far, to me, the most enjoyable on that side of the world. The crystal-clear seas are closely regulated by the government, which prohibits commercial fishing within two miles of the shore and only allows freight shipments and related traffic on one side of the peninsula in order to avoid spills that would contaminate the surrounding outlets.  Looking back on these memories, it was not uncommon for all the mates to chip in and rent a boat to take out for a day of fishing and diving. Open-sea fishing may feel the same in all warm waters, but the difference with the Middle East is the ability to see 80 – 100 feet into the depths and watch the fish as they toy with your bait; not to mention that there is an upfront view of the unfamiliar predators of the Mediterranean! Having used mostly shrimp for bait, we caught a few different species and deep-fried them as soon as we returned to dry land.            The advantages of taking an online course are pretty straight-forward: not having to deal with traffic or parking, the ability to study from home or wherever an internet connection is located But, for me, the disadvantages are more abundant. For instance, in subjects that I am poor at (like this course), one is unable to link up with the instructor for assistance in acquiring a better understanding of what is being asked of you. Another disadvantage is not getting to know any classmates. There has always been an advantage in face-to-face study groups. I have found that sometimes you are able to get a better feel for a subject when working with your peers. For me, an online courses major benefit is convenience.            Online studies have revolutionized the education system, taking study to wherever the student is, but for those of us that have a long absence from school, online classes may not be the best choice. I find it very difficult on so many levels, not to mention very stressful, and seek only a passing grade, instead of the usable knowledge of the class. In conclusion, as you may have already gleaned from my essay, I find that the drawbacks outweigh the advantages. However, in pursuit of academic recognition, one does what one has to, in order to ameliorate ones life and that of ones family.            Institutes of higher education have transcended their traditional image as local and regional points of interest for audiences across national, international, and global arenas. This extended outreach poses a direct correlation in which the business of education has become an integrated asset in the business of doing business.  The introduction of global business ventures (such as Wal-Mart, Ikea, and Starbucks) have reinvented the traditionally local marketplaces and introduced super market places. One case in point is the â€Å"Super Wal-Mart†stores which cater to every need, from groceries to a department store with a pharmacy, vision center, portrait studio and hair salon. How exactly does this all tie into the business of education? I will address two significant elements: technology and management.            These colossal superstores are upheld, literally and figuratively, by an infrastructure of communication networks.  These networks include information systems that facilitate everything from inventory to purchasing. The ability to maintain these networks requires specialized, and in most cases, certified persons. The individuals, whether in-house or contracted, hold qualified certifications specific to such areas as computer science, networking, and database engineering. With the extent to which technology is driving the business of globalization, the business of education is directly impacted as students seek to arm themselves with the credentials necessary to secure a job within the overwhelming support service industry. An industry so competitive that, in order for the key players to secure the worthwhile contracts, recruitment of the most qualified is a must. These individuals are à ©lite students out of college and universities, or experienced professionals. Once employed, they must remain current with certifications as technologies grow and expand. This is why they engage in continuing education. Likewise, a clients infrastructure may grow and expand, thus calling for the support service to educate personnel accordingly. The realm of any business, big or small, is always changing.            Management, the second element, runs rampant amidst the entire scheme of it all. In order for businesses to be successful, much less remain on par, knowledgeable supervisors, managers, and directors are required. For these individuals, like their support service counterparts, to ensure progress and efficiency, their skills need to be constantly nourished. This capability has an impact on al business models, as employers must take into consideration incentive programs, such as â€Å"tuition reimbursement†, should they wish to sustain the attention of highly-skilled employees.  As students become workers, this benefit is a key point of interest during the job search. Employees who are not viewed as influential and are looking to advance skills may not be able to readily fund the costs of educational endeavors on their own. Should their duties and responsibilities be impacted by technological advancements, not being able to fully comprehend and take to the new changes can run the risk of losing their jobs. In turn, companies are faced with a dilemma in stream-lining the guidelines for qualification of educational reimbursement, while educational institutions are faced with the means of offering tuition assistance in order to attract students. Thus the pursuit of high learning has become a highly evolved business, dependent on the very same support service personnel.            Like the superstores, schools are revamping their own infrastructure of communication networks and entering the business of globalization via online and virtual classrooms, courtesy of the most rampant network to date – the Internet. In essence, the effect of education absorbed by a business creates a boomerang effect, reciprocating the prospects for institutions across the entire academic spectrum.
Saturday, October 26, 2019
The Employee Reaction Toward Organizational Change Commerce Essay
The Employee Reaction Toward Organizational Change Commerce Essay A force drive change is always exists since the Industrial Revolution changed the nature of work. Whether to improve efficiency or create better working environment and productivity has been the base in many organizations. Managers and consultants are continually looking for ways to improve it. Employee dissatisfaction and conflict have also become important farces that push the need for change. At the same time, societal and political forces, such as the fall of communism, increased competition, privatization, and deregulation have an important role. The response of employees to change is hard to be predicted as well, as many factors may have an effect on this. The research investigates the effect of organizational culture to the perception of employee for organizational changes; where organizational culture is characterized by Hofstede cultural dimensions. One of the biggest obstacles to the success of any planned change is employee resistance. Resistance affects a change program. People generally resist change because of its negative consequences. Every person reacts to change differently. The leader of the organization needs to identify the different responses of the employees and be able to deal with their issues and concerns. The most important response that the leader must be prepared for is resistance. Employees may perceive change as endangering their livelihoods and their workplace social arrangements, or their status in the organization. Others know that their specialized skills will be rendered less valuable after a major change. The research tries to find the relation between organizational culture where employees used to work, and the organizational changes. Hofstede dimensions is used to characterized the organizational culture to and relate kind of organizational culture with employees attitude to change. Research Objectives The research has objective of finding the relation between organizational culture and response to organizational change; the research, will determine which one of Hofstede cultural dimensions has larger weight affecting the employees reaction for change, as well as how organizational culture can affect response to change. Research Hypotheses The Research is based on two hypotheses; each of them is related together. First, considers the organizational culture and its characterization with Hofstede cultural dimensions; while the second relates organizational culture with organizational change. The two hypotheses are: H1: Organizational culture is characterized Hofstede cultural dimensions. H2: employees response to change is related with organizational culture. Conceptual Framework Many models and theories have been developed trying to look at organizational change; each is looking the process from different point of view. The modern models for organizational change are:(Kezar, 2001),(Cameron , Green, 2004) Evolutionary Teleological Life Cycle Dialectical Social Cognition Cultural Bullock and Batten, planned change; Kotter, eight steps; Beckhard and Harris, change formula; Nadler and Tushman, congruence model; William Bridges, managing the transition; Carnall, change management model; Senge, systemic model; Stacey and Shaw, complex responsive processes; Some of these approaches are discussed later; while the research is based on relating these approaches, with Hofstede cultural dimensions:(Harris, Moran , Moran, Judith, 2004) 1. Power distance 2. Uncertainty avoidance 3. Individualism 4. Masculinity Research has the roadmap as illustrated in Figure 1 . Organizational culture Organizational Change Process Hofstede cultural dimensions Characterization of organizational culture Drivers of organizational change Employee reaction Figure 1 Research road map The above figure illustrates how research theoretical framework is constructed, based on this and beginning with the concept of organizational change, forces behind organizational change is searched , its types, and theories explaining organizational changes, as well as employees response to that change. On the other hand, Hofstede cultural dimensions are studies to formulate the hypothesis linking these two concepts together. A survey is then investigates the validity of these hypothesis, in the same time if valid it will results in weight of each dimension on the response of change. Research structure The research is constructed from five chapters; first chapter introduces a research problem statement; research objectives and conceptual framework; the second chapter introduces a literature review about the organizational change, Hofstede cultural dimensions, and employees response to change, the operational definitions are stated with the most suitable form research point of view. Chapter three discussed the research methodology, method, and sampling; data collection plan and data analysis is stated as well. Findings of the research are presented in chapter four, as well as the analysis of the data. Finally, chapter five is the conclusion ad recommendations. Chapter 2 Literature Review Introduction In this chapter, a review of literature is introduced; the review includes references of books and scientific publications in recent years. As well, definitions of keywords are introduced, based on operational definitions of terms used in the research. What is Organizational change? Organizational change can be defined as the difference in form, quality, or state over time in an organizational entity.(de Ven, Andrew, 2004) where Culture is defined as a set of meanings and values shared by a group of people.(Alvesson, 2002), so relating the organizational change to organizational culture we can define organizational culture as a specific collection of values and norms that are shared by people and groups in an organization and that control the way they interact with each other and with stakeholders outside the organization. ; the research will define the point under consideration of resistance to change as a Negative emotional, cognitive, and intentional responses to change (de Ven, Andrew, 2004) where magnitude of change is the magnitude of change represents a continuum ranging from fine-tuning changes, such as employee training, to radical organizational changes, such as reengineering and mergers. Changes (Pasmore, Woodman, 2007). Organizational change models Modeling the process of change is an important issue; this modeling can facilitate the process of monitoring change, assessing the results (for both Macro and micro levels); models also can explain the reason behind changes happen, its driving forces, and its consequences. The following sections discusses the early theories addressed the organizational change, followed by discussing the modern theories. Categories of Theories and Models of Organizational Change Evolutionary model The model assumes that the change process is dependent on circumstances, situational variables, and the environment faced by each organization. Social systems as diversified, interdependent, complex systems evolve over time naturally. However, evolution is deterministic, and people have only a minor impact on the nature and direction of the change process. The model focus on the inability of organizations to plan for and respond to change, and their tendency to manage change as it occurs. The emphasis is on a slow process, rather than discrete events or activities. Change happens because the environment demands change for survival. The assumptions in these theories range from managers having no ability to influence adaptability to managers having significant ability to be proactive, anticipating changes in the environment. As seen ; The theory ignores important environmental variables, and ignores the complexity of organizational life (Kezar, 2001) by focusing on a few factors within the external and internal environment, such as resources and size of organization. Environmental disturbance and constraints are overemphasized. Teleological model The model assumes that organizations are purposeful and adaptive. Change occurs because leaders, change agents, and others see the necessity of change. The process for change is rational and linear, as in evolutionary models, but individual managers are much more instrumental to the process. Internal organizational features or decisions, rather than the external environment, motivate change. Key aspects of the change process include planning, assessment, incentives and rewards, stakeholder analysis and engagement, leadership, scanning, strategy, restructuring, and reengineering. At the center of the process is the leader, who aligns goals, sets expectations, models, communicates, engages, and rewards. Strategic choices and human creativity are highlighted. Goal formation, implementation, evaluation, and modification based on experience are an ongoing process. New additions to the repertoire of management tools include collaborative culture definition, large group engagement processes, and individual in-depth interventions. The outcome of the change process is similar to that in evolutionary models: new structures or organizing principles.(Kezar, 2001) Based on above , it can be concluded that , the model analyzes the change process strategy as based on technological terms like reengineering, planning, assessment, restructuring; which is more realistic than other psychological terms like motivation. It also assumes that the process of change is controllable by managers and stockholders. The emphasis on the role of people and individual attitudes to the change process was introduced, especially in research on resistance to change. The ability to, at times, forecast or identifies the need for change was an important contribution, helping organizations to survive and prosper in what otherwise would have been difficult times. The main criticisms relate to the overly rational and linear process of change described within the model. Researchers of second-order change demonstrate a chaotic process and find management models to be lacking needed information on the importance of culture and social cognition.(Kezar, 2001) Dialectical model The model assumes that organizations pass through long periods of evolutionary change and short periods of revolutionary change, when there is an impasse between the two perspectives. An organizations polar opposite belief systems eventually clash resulting in radical change. Conflict is seen as an inherent attribute of human interaction. The outcome of change is a modified organizational ideology or identity. Predominant change processes are bargaining, consciousness-raising, persuasion, influence and power, and social movements. Leaders are the key within any social movement and are a central part of these models .collective action is usually the primary focus. Progress and rationality are not necessarily part of this theory of change; dialectical conflict does not necessarily produce a better organization.(Kezar, 2001) It is seen that, this model provided explanation for regressive change and highlighted irrationality.(Kezar, 2001) The model does not take the effect of the environment upon the change processes. Cultural model Most models of change describe organizations as rational places with norms and rules. The major contribution of cultural models to the change literatures their emphasis on irrationality (also emphasized in dialectical models), the spirit, or unconscious, and the fluidity and complexity of organizations. The model assumes that change occurs naturally as a response to alterations in the human environment; cultures are always changing. Cultural and dialectical models often overlap with the image of social movements as an analogy for cultural and political change. The change process tends to be long-term and slow. Change within an organization entails alteration of values, beliefs, myths, and rituals. There is an emphasis on the symbolic nature of organizations, rather than the structural, human, or cognitive aspects emphasized within earlier theories. History and traditions are important to understand, as they represent the collection of change processes over time.(Kezar, 2001) Change can be planned or unplanned, can be regressive or progressive, and can contain intended or unintended outcomes and actions. Change tends to be nonlinear, irrational, non-predictable, ongoing, and dynamic. Some cultural models focus on the leaders ability to translate the change to individuals throughout the organizations through the use of symbolic actions, language as the key to creating change. If there is an external motivator, it tends to be legitimacy, which is the primary motivator within the cultural model, rather than profit or productivity, which exemplify the teleological and environmental models. It is obvious that the model simplifies the culture as it can be easily handled or understood; but this actually not the case; other complex models to handle culture effect on change is introduces but not easy to apply. Organizational change theories and models (Cameron , Green, 2004) Lewin, three-step model: organism, machine Kurt Lewin developed his ideas about organizational change from the perspective of the organism metaphor. His model of organizational change is well known and much quoted by managers. Lewin is responsible for introducing force field analysis, which examines the driving and resisting forces in any change situation. The underlying principle is that driving forces must outweigh resisting forces in any situation if change is to happen. it assumes that ; if the desire of a manager is to speed up the executive reporting process, then either the driving forces need to be augmented or the resisting forces decreased; or even better, both of these must happen. Lewin proposed that organizational changes have three steps. The first step involves unfreezing the current state of interactions. This means defining the current state, surfacing the driving, resisting forces, and picturing a desired end-state. The second step is about moving to a new state through participation and involvement. The third step focuses on refreezing and stabilizing the new state of affairs by setting policy, rewarding success, and establishing new standards. Figure 2 Lewins three-step model Source: Lewin (1951) Lewins model is good, and can be considered as a fundamental base for further study or theory The model is seen as plan of actions, which can be used to make the change, rather than a model of change Model. It also ignores the assumption of the organism metaphor that groups of people will change only if there is a felt need to do so. (Mills, Dye and Mills, 2009) The change process can then turn into an un-well studied plan that does not tackle resistance and fails to harness the energy of the key players. The effect of culture also is ignored in this model. Bullock and Batten, planned change: machine Bullock and Battens (1985) phases of planned change draw on the disciplines of project management; there are many similar steps to changing your organization models. This particular approach implies the use of the machine metaphor of organizations. The model assumes that change can be defined and moved towards in a planned way. A project management approach simplifies the change process by isolating one part of the organizational machinery in order to make necessary changes, for example developing leadership skills in middle management, or reorganizing the sales team to give more engine power to key sales accounts. this approach implies that the organizational change is a technical problem that can be solved with a definable technical solution. The approach also simplify the process of change , but it can not handle complex situation for organizational change , i.e. when organization has complex situation of changing where change drivers and forces are unknown Kotter, eight-steps: machine, political, organism Kotters (1995) proposed eight steps to make change in organization; his model is derived from analysis of his consulting practice with 100 different organizations going through change. His research highlighted eight key lessons, and he converted these into a useful eight-step model. The eight steps are: Establish a sense of urgency, felt-need for change. Form a powerful guiding group. Assembling a powerful group of people who can work well together. Create a vision. Building a vision to guide the change effort together with strategies for achieving this. Communicate the vision. Kotter emphasizes the need to communicate at least 10 times the amount you expect to have to communicate. The vision and accompanying strategies and new behaviors need to be communicated in a variety of different ways. Empower others to act on the vision. This step includes getting rid of obstacles to change such as unhelpful structures or systems. Allow people to experiment. Plan for and create short-term wins. Look for and advertise short-term visible improvements. Plan these in and reward people publicly for improvements. Consolidate improvements and produce still more change. Promote and reward those able to promote and work towards the vision. Energize the process of change with new projects, resources. Institutionalize new approaches. Ensure that everyone understands that the new behaviors lead to corporate success. This eight-step model gives more defined and detailed procedure for change process; the steps are clear and well defined; but it may take more time to implement and, maybe, it would be difficult to follow strictly. The approach did not refer to the situation of inability of achieving one-step; and how it can be handled. Beckhard and Harris, change formula: organism Beckhard and Harris (1987) developed a formula of change that defines some parameters to take into consideration Figure 3. Figure 3 Source: (Cameron , Green, 2004) Factors A, B, and D must outweigh the perceived costs X for the change to occur. If any person or group whose commitment needed is not sufficiently dissatisfied with the present state of affairs A, eager to achieve the proposed end state B and convinced of the feasibility of the change D, then the cost X of changing is too high, and that person will resist the change. Resistance is normal and to be expected in any change effort. Resistance to change takes many forms; change managers need to analyze the type of resistance in order to work with it, reduce it, and secure the need for commitment from the resistant party. The formula is sometimes written (A x B x D) > X. This adds something useful to the original formula. The multiplication implies that if any one factor is zero or near zero, the product will also be zero or near zero and the resistance to change will not be overcome. This means that if the vision is not clear, or dissatisfaction with the current state is not felt, or the plan is obscure, the likelihood of change is severely reduced. These factors (A, B, D) do not compensate for each other if one is low. All factors need to have weight. This formula is simple but in the same time useful. It illustrates the factors affecting change process; if each party in the process applies in this formula, it will help determining the weak points, and help enhance the performance in each phase of change. On the other hand; the formula gives each factor the same weight, and did not correlate any of these factors together; which may be in accurate. Stacey and Shaw, complex responsive processes There is yet another school of thought represented by people such as Ralph Stacey (2001) and Patricia Shaw (2002). These writers use the metaphor of flux and transformation to view organizations. The implications of this mode of thinking for those interested in managing and enabling change are significant: Change, or a new order of things, will emerge naturally from clean communication, conflict, and tension (not too much). As a manager, you are not outside of the system, controlling it, or planning to alter it, you are part of the whole environment. In Patricia Shaws book Changing Conversations in Organizations, rather than address the traditional questions of How do we manage change? she addresses the question, How do we participate in the ways things change over time? This writing deals bravely with the paradox that our interaction, no matter how considered or passionate, is always evolving in ways that we cannot control or predict in the longer term, no matter how sophisticated our planning tools. As a first look, the model seems to be passive one; it discards the ability of making change goes as we want; also, it assumes that change is an ongoing process by itself, we have no control upon it; all we have to do is to watch and participate in it with a limited role. This can be translated to practical as follow: Managers have to decide what business the organization is in, and stretch peoples thinking on how to adapt to this. Ensure that there is a high level of connectivity between different parts of the organization, encouraging feedback, optimizing information flow, enabling learning. Focus peoples attention on important differences between current and desired performance, between different styles of work and between past and present outcomes. Characterization of organizational culture On the other hand Hofstede cultural dimensions will be used to characterize the organizational culture and can be defined as psychological dimensions, or value constructs, which can be used to describe a specific culture (Harris, Moran , Moran, Judith, 2004). where Hofstede has defined 4 dimensions to define culture ,first is the Power distance is The extent to which a society accepts that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally.(Harris, Moran , Moran, Judith, 2004), second dimension is uncertainty avoidance, is the extent to which a society feels threatened by uncertain or ambiguous situations. (Harris, Moran , Moran, Judith, 2004), third dimension is Individualism, which is loosely knit social framework in a society in which people are supposed to take care of themselves and of their immediate families only.(Harris, Moran , Moran, Judith, 2004); and Collectivism, which is the opposite, occurs when there is a tight social framework in which people distinguis h between in-groups and out-groups; they expect their in-group (relatives, clan, organizations) to look after them, and in exchange for that owe absolute loyalty to it .finally; masculinity is The extent to which the dominant values in society are assertiveness, money, and material things, not caring for others, quality of life, and people. (Harris, Moran , Moran, Judith, 2004) Hofstede cultural dimensions The pioneering work on cultural measurement could be credited to Hofstede (1980). In the earlier stage, Hofstede identified four dimensions of culture and highlights the most important culture differences in a multinational organization. The four dimensions are individualism versus collectivism, power distance, uncertainty avoidance and masculinity and femininity. These four dimensions were initially detected through the comparison of the value among the employees and managers working in 53 national subsidiaries of the IBM Corporation. Dr. Geert Hofstede, believes that culture counts and has identified four dimensions of national culture:(Harris, Moran , Moran, Judith, 2004) 1. Power distance: indicates the extent to which a society accepts that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally. 2. Uncertainty avoidance: indicates the extent to which a society feels threatened by uncertain or ambiguous situations. 3. Individualism: refers to a loosely knit social framework in a society in which people are supposed to take care of themselves and of their immediate families only. Collectivism, the opposite, occurs when there is a tight social framework in which people distinguish between in-groups and out-groups; they expect their in-group (relatives, clan, organizations) to look after them, and in exchange for that owe absolute loyalty to it. 4. Masculinity: with its opposite pole, femininity, expresses the extent to which the dominant values in society are assertiveness, money and material things, not caring for others, quality of life, and people. Criticism of Hofstedes cultural dimensions Hofstedes work on culture is the most widely cited in most of studies. His observations and analysis provide scholars with a highly valuable insight into the dynamics of cross-cultural relationships. However, his work does not escape criticism. In this section, most of criticized points will be listed and discussed.(Jones , 2007) Relevancy Many researchers allude a survey is not an appropriate instrument for accurately determining and measuring cultural disparity. This is especially apparent when the variable being measured is a value which culturally sensitive and subjective. Hofstede addresses this criticism saying that surveys are one method, but not the only method that was used. During the time of its delivery, there was very little work on culture, and at this time many businesses were just entering the international arena and were experiencing difficulties; they were crying out for credible advice. Hofstedes work met and exceeded this demand for guidance. This actually is very convincing for researcher to base their research on Hofstedes work. Cultural Homogeneity This criticism is perhaps the most popular. Hofstedes study assumes the domestic population is a homogenous whole. However, most nations are groups of ethnic units. Analysis is therefore constrained by the character of the individual being assessed; the outcomes have a possibility of arbitrariness. On the other hand, Hofstede tends to ignore the importance of community, and the variations of the community influences. This critic is somewhat true; but if we will speak about the majority of groups within one culture; as well as the probability of being the individual have the common features of his culture, I do believe that is worth to pursue Hofstedes work. National Divisions Nations are not the proper units of analysis, as cultures are not necessarily bounded by borders. Recent research (Jones , 2007) has found that culture is in fact fragmented across group and national lines. Hofstede points out however that national identity is the only means we have of identifying and measuring cultural differences. This is true, as we can agree that national identity is not the only mean to measure cultural differences; but it is one of them, hence the model still valid , may be less accurate but reliable. One Company Approach A study fixated on only one company cannot possibly provide information on the entire cultural system of a country. Hofstede said he was not making an absolute measure, he was merely gauging differences between cultures, and this style of cross-sectional analysis was appropriate. However, this international organization is worldwide spread, and is considered as a typical example of cultural diversity, so it worth to be considered. Out-dated Some researchers have claimed that the study is too old to be of any modern value, particularly with todays rapidly changing global environments, internationalization, and convergence. Hofstede countered saying that the cross-cultural outcomes were based on centuries of indoctrination, recent replications (Jones , 2007), (Nakata, 2009) have supported the fact that culture will not change overnight. Conclusion about Hofstedes cultural dimensions It is obvious that more research is needed to evaluate culture in terms of contemporary standards. However, Hofstedes work has controversy surroundings; the work is still quite high, as it remains the most valuable work on culture. Based on the theoretical and practical value of Hofstedes work, research hypothesis refers to its effect on employs reaction toward organizational changes; and this will be investigated. Resistance to change Resistance to change has been an important area of inquiry. In fact, the importance placed on this issue might lead one to believe that resistance is inevitable when change is being implemented. Newer research (Mills, Dye and Mills, 2009) indicates that this is not always so. On the contrary, some people embrace change and become bored and uninterested if change is not imminent. Some researchers (Wei , 2003) argue that the younger generations of workers are more used to a constant rate of change, are more adept at change, and actually expect to be moving forward constantly. Despite this, resistance to change can and does occur just not all the time by everybody. Given that, resistance to change can be a very real problem for those leading change. Patrick Connor and Linda Lake argue that; (Mills, Dye and Mills, 2009) people tend to resist change or alterations of the status quo. This resistance is broader than simple opposition to a particular change; more widespread than a particular groups or individuals refusal to accept a specific change. There is simply the wish in most people to maintain the consistency and comfort that the status quo holds. This generalized resistance to change stems from a variety of sources. Although their theory of resistance is one of the many that seem to indicate all people will resist change all of the time, their framework is still quite helpful. It creates a framework for understanding why resistance may be happening, when it happens. Employees response to change There are three general forms of responses to system changes: (de Ven, Andrew, 2004) Negative feedback loops. These system responses attempt to attenuate or eliminate the impact of the change on the system. Positive feedback loops. These system responses magnify the impact of the change on the system. This can be in the form of switching (before, during, or after the event) to alternative structures or functions, increased disorder beyond what is directly produced by the change event itself and, if the increased disorder is extreme enough, either creative innovation or collapse. No response. The system may give no apparent response to a given event: This may occur because either the group failed to note the event, or assumed it would not alter the groups fitness landscape, or, Some feature of the groups history, its self-regulatory processes, and/or its routines prevented or impeded response. Alternatively, an apparent no response may be an artifact of the observation process.
Thursday, October 24, 2019
Educational Philosophy Essay -- Education Teaching Educating Essays
Educational Philosophy Writing my educational philosophy has required me to do an extensive amount of personal research that has taken me on some wonderful, inward journeys over the past few months. Voyages through my cognitive and behavioral personas from the beginning of my educational endeavor back in 1992 up until the present day. I have been digging diligently through my archives pulling out old papers I composed regarding my initial views toward education. I have reflected on my days in the writing center at George Mason University as a composition tutor. Plus, I evaluate myself in the classroom now as I teach at the local community college as well as in the local junior high and high schools for my student observation requirements at Concord College. Through all this, I’ve come to understand that my view of education, my philosophy towards education, and my professional development plans are all derived from three goals I have formed which identify my belief in why school exists . Just as John Goodlad (1984) identified four reasons for schooling in A Place Called Home, I’ve formed my own list after a considerable amount of self-reflections and observations. First, I feel as though school must continuously strive to increase academic achievement in all students. In order to do this, the classroom must be focused on academic learning time. The students must be allocated time to become highly engaged in the lesson. This means active learning needs to be increased and other actions, such as administrative measures and straight lecturing, need to be decreased. My second goal is that school must foster positive social relationships among the students. The key to this is in creating an e... ...panish as well as in Health Studies. Also, I maintain active membership to the National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE) in order to keep me informed on new and old theoretical and practical instructional methods regarding grammar, composition, and literature. Continuous educational growth and learning is a major component to my personal wealth and satisfaction as an English teacher. I believe cooperative learning is one key to how I might skim the surface of my educational focus on heightened academic learning time, positive social relationships, and heightened emotional needs of all students. Works Cited: Goodlad, John. (1984). A place called home. New York: McGraw-Hill. Slavin, Robert., & Cooper, Robert. (1999). Improving intergroup relations: Lessons learned from cooperative learning programs. Journal of Social Issues, 55 (4), 647-661.
Wednesday, October 23, 2019
Model of Communication Essay
Recently I attended a lecture given by a geriatrician. He was speaking on healthy ageing. Most of the audience consisted of people above the age of fifty years. However there were some youngsters too like me. The appealing fact regarding the entire lecture was that the geriatrician possessed the qualities of a good orator. What is said is not as important as how it is said. All the health related information was given in an easy to understand and interactive manner making the speech structured, intentional yet formal. The audience got bound to be attentive for full one hour due to excellent communication techniques of the speaker. The eye contact of the geriatrician was excellent. His eyes moved in all the directions which kept the audience engaged. He used interesting slides to present his point. The slides did not just contained written words but also lots of pictures and easy to understand graphs. All this made the lecture more interesting. There was a high degree of audience participation as the geriatrician did not just kept on speaking on the topic, rather frequently asked questions. He also scheduled the last fifteen minutes of the lecture for the audience to ask questions or clear their doubts if any. He stood in the middle of the room and his facial expressions, and body language beautifully matched the contents of the message he wanted to convey. He was a lot younger than the majority of the audience attending the lecture but his excellent command on the subject that he was speaking and the matured way in which he was conducting the whole session resulted in a wonderful interactive session. He reworded certain information in order to hold the interest of the few young audience who were present. Thus every element of communication such as the sender, message, medium of communication and the receiver were in perfect synchrony making the lecture a huge success.
Tuesday, October 22, 2019
BOBOs In Paradise review essays
BOBOs In Paradise review essays What is a BOBO? Is it a clown? An obscure bird? An Acronym? Well, a BOBO is what David Brooks, author of BOBOS In Paradise, calls a bourgeois bohemian. A BOBO is what you would call the upper class of today. In his book, Brooks defines a BOBO and provides detailed information on what a BOBO does, how a BOBO lives, and where a BOBO plays. So, we know from the jacket that a BOBO is a Bourgeois Bohemian, but what exactly does that mean? Brooks explains in his book that a Bohemian Bourgeois (BOBO) is a fusion of the Bohemians of the 1960s and the Bourgeois of the 1980s. From a glance, one could say that the Bohemians greatly opposed the ideals of the Bourgeois and therefore, a BOBO would be a messy contradiction. To a certain degree this is true, however, Brooks explains that a BOBO is a happy medium between both classes, drawing upon the principles of materialism, productivity, and regularity of the bourgeois, and the ideals of creativity, rebellion and self-expression of the bohemians. A BOBO is both bohemian and bourgeois, but major conflicts of interest are eliminated or overlooked. Brooks uses an excellent methodology to explain his analysis of the BOBO. The beginnings of the book explain the history of classes in post-war America, paying special attention to the Bohemians of the 60s and the Bourgeois of the 80s. From there, Brooks describes how the BOBO came to be. The rest of the book is divided into chapters each explaining the lifestyle and habits of the BOBO, and analyzing why the BOBO does what he does. From religion, to leisure, to business, Brooks describes nearly every aspect of the life of the BOBO. Brooks uses an array of sources and evidence to bring his point home. Throughout the book, he cites important books and essays written on social class (such as The Feminine Mystique), and these citations help the reader to follow what past theorists have commented on about class, and how they apply to the BOBO way of ...
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